The Horrifying World Forster Creates in The Machine Stops...

The Horrifying World Forster Creates in The Machine Stops In The Machine Stops Forster creates a world set in the future, where machines rule. In fact, machines run life so much so that human beings, by this time, have adapted accordingly to life and the lifestyle it brings. In the arm-chair there sits a swaddled lump of flesh - a woman, about five feet high, with a face as white as a fungus, Forster writes. This is a pretty horrific description because it shows us that in the world Forster has created, people get no exercise whatsoever. There is in fact no need to get any exercise with the life the humans lead under the control of The Machine. Infants [are] examined at birth, and all who†¦show more content†¦Life then cannot go on! It is often perceived that life is better and easier with machines - but it is eerie to think of what will happen without them, as they are the ones that actually truly have the control. Again, it is often thought that with the machines man is able to control everything, but what if in truth The Mach ine is actually reactionary to society and civilization? Life then becomes less secure than we care to believe. So changes in lifestyle indeed have occurred, and the main one being that people basically need not ever to leave the comfort of their own home! Video telephone calls are available, so it is possible to call people and see them visually during the conversation - but therefore, in this world Forster has created, no one really ever sees anyone face to face, up close and personal. This seems negligible though, but it actually leads onto much greater consequences. People in this world are now haunted by the terrors of direct experience and direct experiences are things that are simply bound to happen sometime in life! However, now people have grown unaccustomed to it, so even a simple handshake is considered as shockingly barbaric. People never touched one another, Forster writes. Human beings are no longer used to seeing expressions on peoples faces, as they simply do not require to go out of their homes and make acquaintances. TheyShow MoreRelatedOne Significant Change That Has Occu rred in the World Between 1900 and 2005. Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 PagesLinda Shopes, eds., Oral History and Public Memories Tiffany Ruby Patterson, Zora Neale Hurston and a History of Southern Life Lisa M. Fine, The Story of Reo Joe: Work, Kin, and Community in Autotown, U.S.A. Van Gosse and Richard Moser, eds., The World the Sixties Made: Politics and Culture in Recent America Joanne Meyerowitz, ed., History and September 11th John McMillian and Paul Buhle, eds., The New Left Revisited David M. Scobey, Empire City: The Making and Meaning of the New York City Landscape

Kurt Vonnegut s Slaughterhouse Five - 1901 Words

Kurt Vonnegut developed his view of America through a history of personal loss and trauma that was largely endured at the same time by his characters. As a child, Kurt Vonnegut lived in Indianapolis, Indiana, which he would use in many of his later novels. His father was a prominent architect, while his mother came from the family of a wealthy brewer. After the depression hit, his father lost his business and gave up, his mother became addicted to alcohol and prescription drugs. In his teen years, Vonnegut wrote for his high school newspaper and continued this interest when he went to Cornell. Vonnegut entered the army and was immediately captured by the Germans and sent as a POW to Dresden. While in Dresden, he was protected from the†¦show more content†¦Vonnegut died in April of 2007 after head injuries he sustained from a fall at his home a few weeks earlier. Vonnegut moved through life with contentious remarks on how he saw the human experience always relying on traumati c moments in his life as a backbone to how he should address the issues of the time. Kurt Vonnegut displays his view of America through his works, from major novels to lesser known short stories. Slaughterhouse Five, Vonnegut’s most well renowned novel, focuses on Billy Pilgrim, a decidedly unremarkable man with a remarkable story. Pilgrim suffered through the turmoil of World War II as a an American POW in Germany, spent time in a veteran’s hospital for mental illness, and had his view of the world destroyed after a supposed months long alien abduction. In his abduction, Billy is told that time is not linear, it all occurs at the same time, only to be experienced by people a sliver at a time, refuting the concept of free will, a concept held dear to Vonnegut. The bombing of Dresden and Billy’s time there during World War II are the center of focus as Pilgrim is thrown around his timeline around the time of his encounter with the Tralfamadorians, the aliens who abducted him. Cat’s Cradle focuses on the journey of Jonah, a writer attempting to research a fictional scientist who worked on the atomic bomb for his book. Jonah is put on a writing assignment in San Lorenzo, a fictional island nation that’s ruled by a dictator

Dumb Jobs Free Essays

Dumb Jobs Many of us will work numerous dumb jobs in our lives before we finally get settled into a permanent  position. Dumb jobs such as working as an usher like the narrator in the essay: â€Å"Stupid Jobs Are Good to Relax With†. A couple of other examples would be jobs in a fast food restaurant or a retail store. We will write a custom essay sample on Dumb Jobs or any similar topic only for you Order Now In the essay, the narrator mentions that for the past couple of years he has relied on these â€Å"stupid jobs† in order to make enough of a living to get through life, while still studying at school. I think  what the author is saying here is very true because many students in university or college  are still in the middle of studying for that future full time career, but are still  being forced to work these jobs, part time, in order to pay their tuition and other expenses that come with university life these days. Expenses such as: residence, meals, phone bills and many others. As the title says, stupid jobs are good to relax with. Throughout the essay, the author is constantly trying to communicate with the audience that in these jobs you are allowed to be lazy and that just showing up and being there for your shift is good enough. This is when I begin to disagree with him because I believe that these temporary jobs should still be taken seriously in order to not only keep the job, but to also take away as many life lessons and common job skills as possible. This will surely help you have a better future in other jobs and careers. In general, I don’t think that these jobs are completely pointless like the author is making them seem at different moments in the essay. Finally, in my opinion these â€Å"dumb† jobs play a huge role in our society. They help develop important job skills and give teens and young adults some extra money that they can then go spends and help out the economy. They also give teens something to keep them busy and to take their minds off school or family life for a bit. Therefore, overall these jobs can be very useful in many different ways and should not be overlooked as pointless. How to cite Dumb Jobs, Essay examples

A Case Study On Developing Corporate Culture At Argos

1 Task One: Culture and Objectives Question - explain two organisational models which would help achieve the organisational goals in the context of the case study? 1.1 Organizational Objectives and Models of Organizational Culture Different models of culture that are proposed by various researchers helps in the identification of various subsystems and elements in an organization and their interdependency on each other. They have direct impact on the behavior of employees with in a given environment. A few examples can be organizational goals, technology used in the organization, and structure management. The style of interaction that takes place between employees at various levels are primary determinants of behavior in a given culture (Martins and Martins, 2002). In other words organizational culture models can be referred to as qualitative measurement tools that will help the managers to identify where cultural aspects should be improved within an organization to make sure that the company as a whole is ready for achieving organizational objectives (Salleh et.al, 2011). Two models that can be adopted by Argos to ensure realization of their missions are focusing on Task Culture as proposed by Charles Hardy and Work Hard/Play Hard cultural model as proposed by Deal and Kennedy (Ghinea Bratianu, 2012). The reasons are that in Task Culture, stress is on getting the tasks done by bringing together appropriate resources to improve performance. There will be an increase in the efficiency of the group as the companys goals takes precedency over individuals requirements. In the case of Work Hard/Play Hard culture, there will be high levels of energy activity and is optimal for a sales oriented organization. Question - explain the difference between national and organisational culture as well as two theories of national culture and two theories of organisational culture. In each case, the explanation needs to relate to the case study as much as possible? 1.2 National Culture and Organizational Culture National culture can be considered as the highest level of culture that imbibes values and beliefs in people during their childhood and are deep seated in every individuals life. These norms, behaviors and customs tends to be the same with in population of the same country. The relation between both cultures become increasing valid when one considers transferring various management techniques and theories to different places in the world (Nazarian Atkinson, 2012). When it comes to organizational culture, it can be referred to as the collection of norms, values, behavior, beliefs, attitudes that are shared and communicated by management to its employees and then to the stakeholders by imparting a feel of the organization. The national culture theory of Hofstede, describes the national culture in the light of different dimensions including power distance, masculinity vs. femininity, uncertainty avoidance, individualism vs. collectivism, indulgence vs. restraint, and long term orientation vs. short term orientation (Nazarian Atkinson, 2012). Trompenars try and define national culture using seven different dimensions that are universalism/particularism, individualism/collectivism, achievement/ascription, neutral/affective, specific/diffuse, internal/external and time orientation (Nazarian Atkinson, 2012). According to the organizational culture model suggested by Schein, there are three levels in which culture exists including the artifacts, espoused values and basic underlying assumptions (Dauber, 2012). There is a distinction between four different domains in organizational culture that includes organizational strategy, organizational culture and identity, organizational design, structure and process and organizational behavior and performance (Hatch Cunliffe, 2006). Question - the analysis of the corporate cultural profile needs to contain a minimum of five key features and must be in the context of the organization in the case study or any organization of the learners choice? 1.3 Corporate Cultural Profile Argos Argos is UKs leading home and general merchandise retailers and operates as two business that are Homebase and Argos. They look forward to shaping the future of shopping through means of retail leadership digitally, multi-channel capability and developing services and product ranges. Argos, is UKs general merchandise retailers and offers value unrivalled, choice and convenience to its customers. These are some of their core cultural values Compelling customer offering: Argos is company that stresses on the convenience of the customers. Hence they focus on ensuring availability of their wide product range and services to customers, by being physically present in places and also through digital leadership and accelerating multi-channels. Cultural values: The basic values are that they believe in winning and makes use of the new opportunities. They believe that change is inevitable and stresses on team work and gives a high amount of stress on the completion of the job. Workplace culture: Employing thousands of people, Argos ensures safe and fair working environment through policies and management on several topics including data protection, emergency and recovery procedures, equal opportunities, safety, training opportunities to develop ones career on the basis of their previous performances. They are motivated through employee benefits and competitive reward packages (Homeretail group, 2015). Corporate governance: Argos adheres to the norms and code of conduct as proposed by government and board of directors, ensuring conformity to the highest standards when it comes to corporate governance. Corporate responsibility: There is a reduction in operation costs by reducing fuel and energy consumption when it comes to operational processes. Argos is trying to create a balance between mutual social and commercial benefits. Question - learners need to show an understanding in their discussion that culture should consistently reinforce what the organization is about, shown through the organisational objectives? 1.4 Organizations corporate culture and achievement of objectives Corporate culture of an organization gives a shared understanding about the mission of a firm including the mission, the strategies undertaken by them, principles and goals, staff beliefs, and explains why organization is the way it is. They are the rules that guides decision making at various levels in any chosen firm. For example, the policies, public statements and activities undertaken by an organization reflects the priorities in a company including safety, integrity, security, learning, improvement etc. it also influences how employees and shareholders associate themselves to the firm and also how day to day business is conducted by the organization. Hence corporate culture of an organization has a direct impact on the effectiveness of an organization (Desson Clouthier, 2010). Employees when relate directly to the culture of the company and adapt to it, performs in a better way towards the fulfillment of these objectives. 2 Task Two:Improving corporate Climate Question - learners need to evaluate the existing corporate climate of an organisation. The evaluation needs to be in the context of what the organisation wants to achieve in terms of its culture. Learners need to demonstrate that they understand that a climate that is right for one organisation may not be right for another, or that a climate may be appropriate for the present but not the future? 2.1 Existing organizational climate Argos Organizational Climate can be explained evaluated with the help of dimensions of climate Structure- works on consensus and not authority Responsibility- Argos tries to be a responsible retailer by reverting positively to the general expectations of the stake holders. This is done by taking inputs from various processes, people and community. Rewards-individual and the company performance leads to rewards and also an opportunity to buy shares of the company. Warmth-A stress is given to the health, safety and wellbeing to the staff of the company and the organization has created a fun loving friendly atmosphere for both its employees and customer. Support- Argos support the customer requirements by giving them an impressive product range. The vision of the company is to have an overriding vision that will create an open and friendly culture, where there will be high performance through team work. Organization identity and loyalty- the policies and code of conduct of the company ensures equal rights to the employees. The company keeps its loyalty to workplace policies and management. Risk- there is always a fair review on the risk and the performance, be in security of human resources or finance by the company regularly taking necessary decisions to avert risks if possible. 2.2 Improving Corporate Climate Organizational climate is shaped by five factors including motivation, change, teamwork, execution and trust. When it comes to motivation, a task should be aligned to the employees that is clearly understood by them followed by a reward structure to keep them motivated. There should be a boost in the morale of the employees and management by ensuring equal rights to all the employees and evaluation based on performance. Imparting certain levels of autonomy will ensure improvement on terms of entrepreneurial spirit and innovation. Change will be required when it comes to de-cluttering of the workspace and so the employees should be prepared for embracing change in the given organization. Stressing on respect and trust for colleagues will help in creation of a sense of purpose and thus leading to the enhancement of organizations climate. Provision of technology is essential for collaborating ideas and making it successful. In certain cases it should be supported by training and develop ment. Review of performance and constructive criticism will improve the performance of employees. Adherence to policies of management will also ensure ethical conduct thereby improving corporate climate with in a given organization. Question - learners need to have a clear rationale in their proposal for a framework for the values that are linked to organisational objectives? 2.3 Framework for organizational values Values can be incorporated in to the organization through a step by step framework ensuring inclusion of all necessary elements that will work towards fulfilling the strategies. The various steps are planning and analyzing, designing, building, delivering and operating as shown below Special strategies have been formulated in Argos for growth in the future. They are attaining digital leadership and becoming a market leader through multi-channel retailing. To concentrate on the portfolio of stores that also acts as pick up points for different multichannel offerings and leading to continued evolution of stores. To attain leadership in products and to provide exclusive brands, make compelling customers offering and to support growth of the organization making good investments (Home Retail Group, 2013). Implementation of this framework prepares the management to manage and analyze the employees talent along with managing both internal as well as external stake holders, after rising up to their expectations. Communications and feedback ensures that the organization is working as a single unit towards realization of strategies checking on major mile stones. Allocation of tasks eliminates clutter and confusion and training and development prepares the employees to hand le the technological as well as managerial challenges successfully. 3 Task Three:Stakeholder Management Question - learners need to identify stakeholders of an organisation before tailoring their communication strategy to satisfy the needs and expectations of the stakeholders? 3.1 Internal and External stakeholders Internal stakeholders are people who are a part of the organization and wants the organization to be successful. It is important to analyze who they are because, their satisfaction is prior because of the accountability that the organization have towards stakeholders (Hill et.al, 2015). Internal stakeholders in the case of Argos are its employees, the management, the directors and owners, the shareholders, trade unions and employee associations. External stakeholders are people who may be impacted in some way because of the decisions that are taken by the organization. In other words they are customers, creditors, government and trade unions, the community as a whole and the customers and suppliers (Hill et.al, 2015). Some of the major stakeholders in Argos includes Marie Cure Cancer care, British Retail consortium, Irish business and Employers Confederation, and International confederation Toy Industries along with their 28,138 shareholders (Home Retail group, 2013). Question - the effectiveness of an existing communication strategy needs to begin with a description recognizing strengths and weaknesses. Learners need to show understanding that some of the current strategy may be fine in the current context of the organisation, but may need to change for a new context? 3.2 Stakeholder communication The industry that Argos operates in is highly dependent on perceptions of customers, there should be a communication between the organization and the stakeholders ensuring that both of them understand each others position and Argos meets their expectations. Argos communicates through press releases, web sites, annual reports, project reports, advertisements and other reviews as imposed by corporate governance, and also informing their plans and strategies in advance (Home Retail group, 2013). These includes all three different aspects of stakeholder communication including traditional reporting, project relations that are essentially formal in nature and direct communication (Stake holder management pty, 2012). The direct communication seems to be lower with Argos. A successful stakeholder management should be a two way communication process where feedbacks from stake holders are considered in to account and are implemented (Jeffery, 2009). Argos should therefore stress on stakeholde r participation rather than one sided communication. Question - develop new communication strategies tailored to different groups of stakeholders, with a clear differentiation between the treatment of internal and external stakeholders? 3.3 New communication Strategies The communication strategies that can be adopted by Argos remains the same that are traditional reporting and project relations. Annual reports and press releases can be now used as a means to communicate their culture and corporate social responsibility. But these are more of one way communication techniques that ensures no stakeholder participation. So Argos should concentrate on direct communication which will also help to reassert stakeholders and manage them in a productive way. Following diagram represents how stakeholders can be engages meaningfully. Social media acts as a major platform for two way communication. Two way communication will also help the management to understand the expectations from the stakeholders and seek to strike a balance between what is best for organization and the stake holders (Lovejoy et.al, 2010). There are chances that cultural difference among stakeholders will lead to a situation where communicated messages by the company are perceived differently. That is the reason why differences in the beliefs, customs, values, traditions and language should be taken into account. Communication strategy cannot be isolated and should contain more than a set of actions that are inclusive in the business strategy (Barker Angelopulo, 2005). Hence communication strategies should be adapted according to the cultural requirements of the stakeholders to gain their trust. References Desson, K. Clouthier, J. (2010). Organizational Culture-Why does it matter? Presented to the Symposium on International safeguards. IAEA-CN-184/135. Shahzad, F. Luqman, R. A. (2012). Impact of organizational culture on organizational performance: An overview. Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business, 3(9), p.975-985. Dauber, D. et.al. (2012). A configuration Model of organizational culture. A Configuration Model of Organizational Culture. Martins, E. Martins, N. (2002). An Organizational Culture Model to Promote Creativity and Innovation. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 28 (4), p.58-65. Salleh, H. (2011). A Proposed Model for Assessing Organizational Culture towards Achieving Business Objectives, Journal of Techno-social, 3(1), p. 53-59. Ghinea, V. M. Bratianu, C. (2012). Organisational Culture Modelling, Management and Marketing Challenges for the Knowledge Society, 7 (2), p.257-276. Nazarian, A. Atkinson, P. (2012). The Relationship between National Culture and Organizational Effectiveness: The case of Iranian Private sector organizations. International Journal of Management and Marketing Academy, 1(2), p.73-81. Hatch, M. J. Cunliffe, A. L. (2006). Organization Theory. Oxford UK: Oxford University Press. Home Retail Group Plc. (2013). Annual Report and Financial Statements. Shareholder information. Jeffery, D. (2009). Stake Holder Engagement: A Road Map to Meaningful Engagement. Doughty Centre: Cranfield University. Stakeholder management pty Ltd. (2012). The Three Types of Stakeholder Communication. Hill, C. W. L. et.al. (2015). Strategic Management Theory: An Integrated Approach. Stanford: Cengage Learning. p.362. Barker, R. Angelopuro, G. C. (2005). Integrated Organizational Communication, Creda Communication Lovejoy, K. et.al. (2010). Engaging Stakeholders through Twitter. Public Relations Review.

Jane Austens Emma Essays - British Films, Emma Woodhouse, Emma

Jane Austen's Emma Jane Austen's Emma is a novel of courtship. Like all of Austen's novels, it centers around the marriage plot: who will marry whom? For what reasons will they marry? Love, practicality, or necessity? At the center of the story is the title character, Emma Woodhouse, a heiress who lives with her widowed father at their estate, Hartfield. At the beginning of the novel, she is a self-satisfied young woman who feels no particular need to marry, for she is in the rather unique condition of not needing a husband to supply her fortune. At the beginning of the novel, Emma's governess, Miss Taylor, has just married Mr. Weston, a wealthy man who owns Randalls, a nearby estate. The Westons, the Woodhouses, and Mr. Knightly (who owns the estate Donwell Abbey) are at the top of Highbury society. Mr. Weston had been married earlier. When his previous wife died, he sent their one child (Frank Churchill) to be raised by her brother and his wife, for the now-wealthy Mr. Weston could not at that time provide for the boy. Without Miss Taylor as a companion, Emma adopts the orphan Harriet Smith as a prot?g?. Harriet lives at a nearby boarding school where she was raised, and knows nothing of her parents. Emma advises the innocent Harriet in virtually all things, including the people with whom she should interact. She suggests that Harriet not spend time with the Martins, a local family of farmers whose son, Robert, is interested in Harriet. Instead, Emma plans to play matchmaker for Harriet and Mr. Elton, the vicar of the church in Highbury. Emma seems to have some success in her attempts to bring together Harriet Smith and Mr. Elton. The three spend a good deal of leisure time together and he seems receptive to all of Emma's suggestions. The friendship between Emma and Harriet does little good for either of them, however. Harriet indulges Emma's worst qualities, giving her opportunity to meddle and serving only to flatter her. Emma in turn fills Harriet Smith with grand pretensions that do not suit her low situation in society. When Robert Martin proposes to Harriet, she rejects him based on Emma's advice, thinking that he is too common. Mr. Knightly criticizes Emma's matchmaking, since he thinks that the dependable Robert Martin is Harriet's superior, for while he is respectable, she is from uncertain origins. Emma's sister, Isabella, and her husband, Mr. John Knightly, visit Highbury, and Emma uses their visit as an opportunity to reconcile with Mr. Knightly after their argument over Harriet. The Westons hold a party on Christmas Eve for the members of Highbury society. Harriet Smith, however, becomes ill and cannot attend. During the party, Mr. Elton focuses his attention solely on Emma. When they travel home by carriage from the party, Mr. Elton professes his adoration for Emma, and dismisses the idea that he would ever marry Harriet Smith, whom he feels is too common for him. Mr. Elton obviously intends to move up in society, and is interested in Emma primarily for her social status and wealth. Shortly after Emma rejects Mr. Elton, he leaves Highbury for a stay in Bath. Emma breaks the bad news to Harriet Smith. As of this time, Frank Churchill has not yet visited his father and his new wife at Randalls, which has caused some concern. Emma, without having met the young man, decides that he must certainly be a good suitor for her, since he is of appropriate age and breeding. Another character who occupies Emma's thoughts is Jane Fairfax, the granddaughter of Mrs. Bates, an impoverished widow whose husband was the former vicar, and the niece of Miss Bates, a chattering spinster who lives with her mother. Jane is equal to Emma in every respect (beauty, education, talents) except for status, and provokes some jealousy in Emma. Jane will soon visit her family in Highbury, for the wealthy family who brought her up after her parents had died has gone on vacation. There is some indication that Jane might be involved with Mr. Dixon, a married man, but this is only idle gossip. Mr. Elton returns from Bath with news that he is engaged

How Many Words in a Novel The ULTIMATE Guide To Novel Length

How Many Words in a Novel The ULTIMATE Guide To Novel Length How Long Should Your Novel Be? Our Editors Have the Answers With NaNoWriMo around the corner, many authors are gearing up to weave worlds, characters, and stories into novels with their words. But†¦ how many words does a novel make? And when it comes to creating art, just how important is it to stick to the rules - such as standard word counts?Well, if your goal is to publish and sell your novel, those rules are pretty darn important. As with many publishing standards, word count guidelines exist for a number of reasons - including marketing and sales - but also to help create stories that are free from plot or pacing issues that can exhaust readers. You wouldn’t be reading this article right now if a quick scroll down showed an apparent 10,000 words, would you?Why does word count matter?â€Å"Word count limits sometimes seem as though they are stifling artistic flow, but they are usually there for a reason,† says Freelance Editor Lisa Howard.If you’re hoping to land a book deal with a traditional publisher, you d on’t want to give an editor a reason to turn your book away. That’s why Freelance Editor Jessica Hatch urges you to follow their rules. â€Å"In the New York agencies I worked for, it was rare to see a 120,000-word manuscript avoid the slush pile. This is because we were groomed to understand that, even if a long manuscript is strong from start to finish, it would take considerable work to convince an editor to buy it at auction.† To bend or not to bend the rulesWe said it already, but it's worth repeating: authors should not underestimate the value of staying within standard word counts. Editors in traditional publishing houses believe that it’s easier to market books that meet genre expectations, and if you’re hunting for a book deal or for an agent, you want to eliminate any reason for them to push your manuscript to the side.This sentiment acknowledged, these days self-publishing has given authors the ability to play around with the rules. A good example of this is is John McCrae’s (aka Wildbow’s) novel, Worm, which was published as a web serial and is 1.75 million words long. And - in the vein of four-letter titles that start with â€Å"W† - there’s Hugh Howey’s Wool, which was originally self-published as a series of e-novellas.While sticking to standard word counts is definitely important from a sales or marketing standpoint, a greater pool of publishin g options means that writers do not need to view â€Å"the rules† as entirely rigid and unbendable - especially when going against the grain ultimately serves the story. As Kelly Lydick, advises, â€Å"Adhering to standard word counts can be important - but even more important than that is the telling of a good story. Even better - a great story.†What are your thoughts on publishing standards, such as word counts? Share your thoughts in the comments below.

Marketing Planning (based on Apple Inc.) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Marketing Planning (based on Apple Inc.) - Essay Example has been chosen as the organization and the new product is Apple’s I-TV. The report will highlight the proposed feature of the latest product and the entire process to develop and launch it in the market. The report will also highlight the marketing strategy and also the expected returns from the product. Table of Contents Table of Contents 3 Introduction 4 New Product development Process 5 SWOT 6 Marketing Objectives of the company 7 Segmentation and Targeting 8 Marketing Strategy 9 Implementation & Factors affecting it 12 Budget 13 Marketing Control 13 Ethical Issues of Marketing 14 References 15 Bibliography 17 Self Evaluation 18 Introduction The history of Apple Inc. dates back to the early 1976 when the company was established by Steve Jobs, Ronald Wayne and Steve Wozniak. The company is presently headquartered at California, USA (Yahoo Finance, n.d.). Apple together with its subsidiaries develops and markets desktop computers, laptops, portable music players, mobile comm unication devices and several other digital gadgets. Devices such as I-pad, I- Phone, Mac OS, I-pod are some of the invigorating products of Apple. The company has a worldwide presence and employs at around 370 exclusive Apple stores. Apart from the hardware section, the company also has a strong presence in the field of software. The software segment includes operating systems such as Mac OS and other utility and productivity applications like Quick time player, I-work and logic studio among others (Apple Store, n.d.). The company mainly distributes its product through whole sellers, retailers and Apple owned exclusive stores. Hewlett Packard, Dell, Google and Research in Motion Limited are the direct competitors of the company (NASDAQ, 2012). However companies such as Lenovo, Compaq, Toshiba and Hitachi are also considered as the circumlocutory competitors of the company. The aim of the report is to develop a new product and successfully launch it in the market with a sound market ing strategy. The product is also supposed to provide high return on investment in its initial stages. Now going by the prevailing situation of Apple, the company is mainly famous for its innovative products. Therefore the product which has been chosen for the course of action is I-TV, an innovative television. I-TV: A brief overview The proposed product I-TV is an extension of Apple’s innovative product range. The product will also mark Apple’s presence in the Television industry and can certainly pose a big challenge for the established players. The projected features of the product of the product are:- 3D display Widescreen Strong Audio and Video output Look of Apple The most important feature and the Unique Selling Proposition of the product is that it will be capable of broadcasting all the digital channels of the world. As a result users can enjoy thousands of channels. New Product development Process Nowadays organizations are faced with increased level of compe tition within the industry (Monczka, 2000, p.1). There are even competitions from the foreign players as well as local players apart from the established domestic players. Hence it becomes necessary for an organization to undertake new product development in order to hold its land in the industry and perform its operations effectively in the market place. The new product development process starts from idea generation and continues till commercialization of the product (Boone & Kurtz, 2011, p.395). The stages are briefly

EVALUATION nad WEBSITE Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

EVALUATION nad WEBSITE - Essay Example It is essential to define business objectives, usability goals and intended context of use well in advance. In this context business objectives of a site include answers to crucial questions such as such, what are the main purposes of the website, who are the websites target audience, success factors, evaluation criteria and budget. The websites contexts of use include information such as important user groups, frequency of visits, user's past experience and expertise, socio-cultural issues, user's needs and client side technical information. Once this Meta information is collected and analyzed a website design should proceed. Effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction are the three units in which usability can be measured. We know that many users visit the travel agency websites since travelers have increased and also the traveling rate has increased during the past few decades. Many people look to travel agents for traveling, booking tickets, searching for vacation plans, and many other such deals. The website should provide a proper user interface to the people so that they do not face any problem in operating the website if they want to. Many people prefer booking tickets online rather than to go to the travel agent and getting it booked. Therefore, many people will browse the websites of the travel agencies before confirming on one particular travel agency. Therefore, the user-interface of the website should be such that it would try to attract more customers. The better the interface, the more loyal the customers become and more the increase in the number of customers for that travel agency. The three basic components of web usability are: Effectiveness: It can be measured by determining if the website users can actually accomplish their requirements at hand. Requirements at this context can range from a simple task such as finding information to complex and sensitive activities such as purchasing a product. Efficiency: Efficiency looks at the resources expended in order to achieve the task. Although resources can be seen in multiple perspectives, the most critical resource is time. Satisfaction: The essential feature of impressing the customers involves the amount of satisfaction a particular website can provide to the users. The overall experience that involves the color contrast, dynamic features, availability of appropriate information, accuracy of search play crucial role in the satisfaction rate of users. All these features have to be addressed while designing a website and these issues were considered while building the travel agency website. The customer generally searches for flights to his or her desired destination. Therefore, the provision for searching for flights has to be present right on the first page of the website (i.e. the Home Page of the website). Once the data is fed and the search button clicked, the list of flights has to be shown to the customer and the customer can then select which flight he want his ticket to be booked in. Also, once he visits the website and he likes the website, he would like to become a member of the travel agency. Also, he would like to have a personal storage place where all his information related to his travel will be saved. Such personal place has to be provided which can be accessed through his login name and

Is There Any Right to Die Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 150

Is There Any Right to Die - Essay Example This question leads to an endless chain of contradictions; however, under a closer examination, it becomes obvious for everyone that such kind of existence can be barely called â€Å"life†. Nowadays medicine possesses a lot of tools, such as morphine, which are able to "facilitate" sufferings of deathly ill patients. In the meantime, the drugs change patient’s mind and psyche, which eliminates any personality features. Hence, even though the drugs may cure and help the person to defeat the unbearable pain, still human personality is being destroyed by those medicals. According to a liberal measurement of human life value, the liberal policy of European and United States stated that the value of human life is secondary in comparison with a person’s will. This means that if a person can be considered as adequate, according to psychological evaluation of one, the person is responsible for one’s own decisions and actions, and therefore one’s decision must be respected by the rest of the society. Hence, such person is eligible to do whatever one wants with his or hers own life and body, unless it causes any harm to other people and is prohibited legally (Seale, 1994). If to take a look at the issue from the personal point of view, it becomes obvious that the life has a meaning when pleasures prevail over sufferings; moreover, positive emotions are considered to be more meaningful than the negative ones. So euthanasia seems to be the only solution in some cases; for instance, when human’s life cannot be maintained in other way and suffering cannot be relieved except by death. In short, if suffering is evil, how can we morally justify preservation of life, which has turned into a constant suffering?   

Barriers to the HPV Vaccination and Cervical Cancer Screening for BAME Women

Barriers to the HPV Vaccination and Cervical Cancer Screening for BAME Women What are the Barriers of Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Vaccination and Cervical Cancer Screening amongst Minority Women age 12-26? Abstract Background: Minority women systematically experience socio-economic disadvantages, which put them in the face of greater obstacles in attaining optimal health. Approximately 44 million women in the United States, nearly one third of all women in America, self-identify as women of a minority racial or ethnic group. Yet, minority women fare worse than non-Hispanic white women across a broad range of measures, with some of the largest disparities being that of HPV-related cervical cancer mortality. Objective: The objective is to emphasize the barriers of care in relation to cervical cancer screening and HPV vaccination, as well as examine patterns in barriers like demographic, cultural, and health belief factors amongst minority women.Methods: The data collection review and process was based on article review factors that were associated with HPV vaccine acceptability, initiation, and series completion among adolescent and young adult women of different racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic groups in the United States. Results: Selected characteristics of the included studies contended that an estimated 12,000 women are diagnosed with cervical cancer annually in the United States, and 4500,000 women worldwide develop cervical cancer each year. Higher rates of cervical cancer are found in US regions with large minority and impoverished populations. Conclusion: It is imperative for clinicians to progress minority women screening and early detection. Further intervention models need to reflect multifactorial determinants of screening utilization. Introduction Background While there have been strides in HPV and cervical cancer prevention efforts, many minority women across the board still experience significant barriers to care. For example, women from rural and poor communities tend to have health illiteracy in regard to their own self-care, which also includes their mistrust for the healthcare system. Additionally, many minority women simply lack financial access to care. Socio-economic disadvantages (i.e. race, class, gender, education, occupation, etc.) are the underlying issues. Though many health efforts are made by health professionals, and health ramifications like informative technologies and preventative care strategies have been achieved, there is a continual socio-economic and racial imbalance with both the diagnosis and treatment of cervical cancer, especially the strains directly influenced by HPV. Specific Aims Our specific aims are to first identify Health care barriers and challenges to cervical cancer screening and HPV vaccination within the population of minority women. We also want to uncover minority women, health care provider & health care system risk factors for cervical cancer screening & HPV vaccination, as well as, health care challenges and opportunities in improving cervical cancer screening rates amongst minority women. Lastly, we want to pinpoint the nurses’ roles in preventing cervical cancer in underserved racial and or ethnic populations. Methods Search Strategy In June 2017,we searched four electronic bibliographic databases (Google scholar, Medline, Pubmed and Cinahl) using the search terms ‘HPV’ ‘cervical cancer’ ‘pap smear’ ‘minority women’ ‘ethnic women’ and ‘health disparities’. All of the studies identified during the database search were assessed for relevance to the review based on the information provided in the title, abstract, and description of key words and terms. A full report was retrieved for all studies that met the inclusion criteria. Inclusion Criteria The data collection review and process was based on article review factors that were associated with HPV vaccine acceptability, initiation, and series completion among adolescent and young adult women of different racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic groups in the United States. We reviewed relevant peer-reviewed and evidence-based qualitative literature in order to identify current vaccination trends, rates and factors associated with HPV and cervical cancer. Study findings a related to race (black, Latina, Asian), and socio-economic disadvantages were summarized. Eligibility Criteria Understanding current vaccination trends and the barriers to series initiation and completion, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends that 11 to 12 year old adolescents receive two doses of the HPV vaccine in order to protect against themselves against cancers that are caused by HPV. The HPV vaccine series can be given to girls beginning at age 9 years old, but many parents believe this age is too immature for a sexually transmitted disease vaccination. Additionally, it is recommended by the CDC that girls and women age 13 through 26 years of age who have not yet been vaccinated or completed the vaccine series to be given the HPV vaccination immediately to provide HPV-cancer related protection. In understanding HPV vaccination parameters, it is essential that we too recognize gaps in knowledge and all the misconceptions surrounding HPV vaccination and cervical cancer. When the vaccine is given prior to HPV exposure, it is highly effective in preventing infection from two high-risk genotypes (HPV-16/HPV-18) of HPV, which causes approximately 70 percent of cervical cancers, and two low-risk (HPV-6/HPV-11) genotypes that are responsible for over 90 percent of all genital warts. As we assessed the appropriateness of our criteria interests, we focused on Black/African-American, Latina and non-white adolescent women age 12-26, minority teen women reported having sexual intercourse, adolescent women who have completed puberty, and low income and health care illiterate young women, who are too uninsured or have limited access. Quality Assessment The methodological quality is significant to our study. It was organized and detailed oriented. It presented evidence that there is a need for increasing HPV vaccination among young minority women. The failure to achieve equitable vaccination has exacerbated health disparities in HPV and cervical cancer incidence and mortality. Research suggests that low- income and minority women are disadvantaged due to the difference in cervical cancer screening, practices and beliefs, as well as healthcare access barriers and systemic risk factors. We used the ‘Research and Quality Scoring Method’ by Sackett and Haynes, the Jadad scale, and the items published by Cho and Bero to rate the quality of each study (Table 1). The range of total quality scores was from 0 to 9. Studies that ranged from 0 to 5 were considered low quality, whereas studies that ranged from 6-9 were considered high quality. Two raters independently coded variables using Microsoft Excel. Discrepancies were identified and resolved amongst our team members. Table 1. Study quality ratings Statistical Analysis Race/ethnicity and low socio-economic status are known predictors of late-stage diagnosis of cervical cancer and are important predictors of cancer mortality. In the United States, approximately 12,000 women develop cervical cancer and 44000 die of the disease each year, with higher incidence and mortality rates reported in low-income minority populations. HPV vaccination has been shown to reduce the prevalence of high-risk HPV infection among teen women and thus, has the potential to decrease the risks of cervical cancer among vaccinated young women. According to preceding surveillance and qualitative studies, it is indicated that a decline in the annual rate of high-grade cervical cancer, from 834 per 100,000 in 2008 to 688 per 100,000 in 2014, among women aged 21 to 24 years, which reflects the impact of HPV vaccination. However, declines were not significant in areas with high proportions of minority women (i.e blacks, Latinas) and/or people living in low-income areas. Results Included Studies The search yielded nearly 500 potential article titles for review, yet less than 70 were relevant to our interests. And of that 70, about 20 were dated within the last 10 years. Accordingly, less than 20 seemed more characteristic of our research interests and provided adequate information to our research question. Description of Studies Selected characteristics of the included studies contended that an estimated 12,000 women are diagnosed with cervical cancer annually in the United States, and 4500,000 women worldwide develop cervical cancer each year. In the United States, cervical cancer incidence is nearly twice as high in counties with poverty levels > 20% compared with those with poverty levels

Essay on Social Order in The Tempest -- Tempest essays

The Social Order in The Tempest  Ã‚        Ã‚  Ã‚   In Shakespeare's time, the social order was as powerful and rigid as law. Shakespeare provides an example of this social structure in his play, The Tempest. In the course of his play, the reader sees superior men dominating lesser beings on the basis of race, financial status, and gender. Not all upper class are completely corrupt, however. We see a semi-virtuous hero in the character of Prospero. Prospero has every reason to feel superior and exercise his social power, yet he doesn't always treat others disrespectfully. Although he does have some sense of charity, Prospero is still a good example of the social condition of the time.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   One way in which The Tempest reflects Shakespeare's society is through the relationship between characters, especially between Prospero and Caliban. Caliban is the former king of the island, and Prospero and his daughter Miranda teach him how to be "civilized." Immediately thereafter, Prospero and Miranda enslave Caliban and he is forced to be their servant. Caliban explains "Thou strok'st me and make much of me... ...otte Porter and Helen A. Clarke (eds.) Thomas Y. Crowell & Co. 1903. Knight, G. Wilson. "Shakespearian Superman" The Tempest D.J. Palmer (ed.) Macmillan & Co. 1968 Murray, J. Middleton. "Shakespeare's Dream" The Tempest D.J. Palmer (ed.) Macmillan & Co. 1968 Palmer, D.J. Shakespeare's Later Comedies: An Anthology of Modern Criticism. Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1971. Shakespeare, William. The Tempest. 1611. Ed. Stephen Orgel. New York: Oxford UP, 1994. Tillyard, E.M. "The Tragic Pattern" The Tempest D.J. Palmer (ed.) Macmillan & Co. 1968

Creating Positive School Experiences for Teens with Disabilities

All men are created equally. Having disabilities does not constitute having different rights. But this is not usually the case. In the article entitled, Creating Positive School Experiences for Teens with Disabilities, the experiences in school of students with disabilities is tackled and what positive actions could and should be done in order to provide these teens the rightful treatment they deserve. The theme of the article is to emphasize the importance of equality and unity despite the differences in capabilities. It is an article that should be highly considered by students with disabilities, teachers and school counselors involved in programs for the well-being of all students, and other students who have direct encounter with fellow schoolmates that have disabilities. Students with disabilities often face discrimination and challenges because of the biasness people have towards them. As a result, they could easily internalize negative attitudes, affecting their behavior towards other people. The article educates people, especially teachers and counselors, to help by creating programs that would encourage people to help in providing a positive environment for students with disabilities to participate in. The article does not state that special treatments are what students with disabilities need. What is more important is that they are given equal chances and the right amount of respect they deserve. Bullying and other forms of negative biasness should be eradicated from the school system in order for the disabled students to grow well in a fair and just community. The article agrees with the Scripture as it highlights giving equal opportunities and respect for all people, no matter what background they may have. The ministry should also help encourage school administrators to intervene and promote positive school experiences for the disabled. Programs that emphasize on respect, equality, and understanding should dominate the school rules.

Election 1984 essays

Election 1984 essays Let's take a look back at the presidential election of 1984. The primary candidates in this election were Ronald Reagan for Republican, and Walter Mondale for Democratic. This election campaign revolved mostly around the issues of deficit and tariff barriers. The Republicans enthusiastically nominated Reagan and Bush in 1984, confident that Reagan's personal popularity would bring him once again to victory.For economical issues, Reagan's policies defeated inflation, cut taxes, increased the Gross National Product and increased employment in 1984. Republicans were sure that Reagan's style and personality would again come through and be as strong in Presidency as ever. For the Democratic side, Walter Mondale, former Vice President under Jimmy Carter, gained 26 seats in the House, 8 candidates entered the primaries. Walter decided to run with a New York Congresswoman to spice up his campaign, however not even she was much of an attraction for him. Still, Mondale kept going hammering away to stay in the race. He began tearing into some of Reagan's issues: Reagan's tax cuts, which only benefited the rich, the obvious effects of Reagan's age. The President was 73 and had trouble staying awake during cabinet meetings, prayer in schools, and abortions. Still Reagan didn't have the country doubting him. This election was a close battle, but with an 18 point margin, Reagan once again took the lead. Results were: Reagan received 525 electoral votes and 54,158,802(58.4%) popular votes and Mondale received 13 electoral votes and 37,443,559(41.6%) popular votes ...

Why did Estonia move from a planned economy to a market economy Essays

Why did Estonia move from a planned economy to a market economy Essays Why did Estonia move from a planned economy to a market economy Essay Why did Estonia move from a planned economy to a market economy Essay When Estonia first gained independence after the First World War, it enjoyed great economic success and development during the twenty-year inter-war period. However, the economic gains were negated by fifty years of Soviet occupation following World War II, leading to economic stagnation. The central government of the Soviet Union had destroyed the Soviet Republics economy as a whole, as the decision of what to produce, how much to produce and for whom to produce was placed solely on the government. Thus inefficient monopolistic state-owned industries employing the entire population regardless of skill level churned out poor quality goods that nobody wanted, while the rationing of basic foodstuffs was part of daily life. With the loss of the profit motive and no hierarchy system where the better were rewarded, both people and companies had little motivation to be efficient or innovative. The Estonian economy was in reality just the sum of the enterprises physically located on one territory. Due to the closed Soviet Unions huge shortage economy and immense quantities of natural resources, the Estonian economy could seemingly ignore world competition. As raw materials were bought at heavily subsidized prices from Russia (which led to the unaccountably low prices of energy and raw materials etc. ) the majority of enterprises created were material, energy and transport intensive, producing mainly low quality goods. But when the Soviet Union began to collapse in 1991, Estonia declared independence and started shifting towards a market economy. It sought an end to the incessant shortages, poor quality goods and inefficient state-owned industries suffering from diseconomies of scale which had plagued it as a planned economy and the diversity and dynamism of a market economy, which would hopefully bring much needed foreign investment, a well-oiled private business sector and stable economic growth to raise living standards. The Estonian economy faced deep structural problems immediately following independence. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Russian ruble continued to function as a currency in the former Soviet empire. Russia had the sole authority to print ruble notes and so in some sense controlled monetary policy throughout the currency area. Estonia remained part of the ruble zone the remnants of the Soviet monetary system even after independence in 1991. But political and economic instability in the CIS, coupled with the complete lack of monetary discipline within the ruble zone, offered little international credibility for the nations using the ruble. With the removal of subsidies on a multitude of goods, prices rose to real levels. In 1992 inflation exceeded 1,000 percent. Without the Soviet Union juggernaught providing cheap raw materials and a market for exports, the Estonian economy was left completely exposed. Inefficient state companies were forced to close, aggravating unemployment and dragging down GDP: the cumulative decline of the GDP during the period 1990-1994 was 36%. Foreign investment was desperately needed; enterprise was almost non-existent and capital had to be imported. What are the benefits of its transition? (5) Today, Estonia has a booming economy that is rapidly reaching western standards. Its economic success is based on a liberal economic policy, a currency board system with a stable currency pegged to the Deutschmark/Euro and a balanced budget (The Estonian government solved the problem of rocketing inflation by introducing a new currency, the Kroon, in 1992. It was pegged to the stable Deutsch mark and helped to calm prices, allowing the economy to start anew). Thanks to an extremely favorable business climate, excellent communication links, a low-cost base, plus a highly skilled and productive workforce, Estonia has become an attractive location for inward direct investment and an active and rapidly growing exporter: in 1998, Estonian exports were four times the level they were five years before. Exports increased faster than imports in 1998, cementing the export sector as a key factor contributing to the countrys economic growth. In 1995, Estonian signed an association agreement with the EU and was among the first six associated countries invited to accession negotiations in December 1997. In 1995, Estonia formally submitted its application to the WTO and negotiations for membership are now entering the final stages. Estonia has succeeded in reorienting its foreign trade away from the former Soviet Union and the shrinking eastern market to western markets. Today, the EU is Estonias biggest trading partner, accounting for over 60% of Estonias exports in 1998. Russia continues to be an important export partner, although total exports to the Russian Federation declined from 19% in 1997 to 13. 4% in 1998. The Russian financial crisis had an effect on industries whose main target for export was Russia (namely the food industry). The GDP declined in 1999 by 0. 7%, but started growing again in 2000. Due to important changes in the direction of foreign trade and the economic relationship in general from east to west during the 1990s, the effect of financial crises in Russia had a more moderate influence on the Estonian economy than would have occurred if Estonia had been more closely linked to the Russian market. The structure of the Estonian GDP has become rather close to that of the GDP of developed countries. These structural changes are a result of the deep economic decline experienced during the difficult years of transition and foreign trade shock (a rapid change of terms of trade, and a deep decline of trade with Russia). These shocks enabled Estonia to develop an export-orientated and well-oiled free market economy, which in turn brought economic growth and an increase of general wages well ahead of inflation. Estonia is now investing heavily in the technology sector, and 40% of its citizens now use the internet. With living standards rising steadily, more and more economists are beginning to call the difficult transition Estonia has endured the Estonian Economic Miracle.

Executive Decision Making Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 6000 words

Executive Decision Making - Essay Example   It would be necessary before constructing a contract to determine whether the supplier will want such advances and then weigh this against operational costs of the business model. Furthermore, if the agreement between the supplier and the distributor is not going to be long-lived, contracts may ask for some variety of reimbursement related to the tooling costs to meet the distributor’s demand. This could be non-beneficial for a smaller organization that might be struggling to achieve profit. Any and all expenses must be considered before seeking foreign sourcing opportunities. If the supplier is chosen will be a partner for a multi-year relationship, then issues of potential pricing must be weighed before making this decision. Costs of manufacturing are influenced by changing labor wage rates and fluctuating prices of raw materials in the global supply chain. It can be difficult to establish an appropriate pricing agreement under a long duration contract as it is not easy to predict what costs will be incurred in the future. The vendor could, in the future, demand a higher price (which can be rejected by the distributor) which could terminate the contract. This would have disadvantages as it takes time for supplier partners to understand the needs of their client and alter manufacturing to fit distributor needs. Hence, in a price dispute, it could lead to further costs in identifying an alternative supplier. Additionally, product liability is a major concern for companies seeking overseas sourcing. There is a substantial risk that consumers purchasing products made in a foreign nation could have personal injuries as a result of using the foreign-made product or property damage if the product happens to be.

Pharmacy Technician Experience Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Pharmacy Technician Experience - Essay Example This experience proved that the field of Pharmacy is multifaceted that a mere experience would not suffice to satisfy the professional demand of pharmacy. I have decided to pursue a doctorate degree in Pharmacy to competently respond to the demands of the profession both in the practical as well as scientific aspect of the job. For the short term, I am interested to further my knowledge in the practical aspect of pharmacy by engaging in the retail and hospital environments with the long term objective of becoming a scientist in the pharmaceutical industry. Obtaining my Doctor of Pharmacy will not only provide me with the competence in the field of research but will also provide the rare privilege of being a trusted member in my profession as well as community. This knowledge, experience and trust however must be earned especially in the demanding field of pharmacy particularly if one is to pursue a doctorate

Business ethic cases Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Business ethic cases - Essay Example At which point, he reveals his own convictions on the matter. Maitland begins by presenting the case made by the critics against the corporations. As stated in the article companies have been accused of pursuing cheap labor all over the world to: get away with paying workers less than living wages; take advantage of child labor; avoid human rights abuse issues; indirectly supporting repressive regimes that denying workers the right to join unions and do not enforce minimum labor standards in the workplace, etc. He describes how the campaign against international sweatshops was exposed on the television, forcing the publicity- shy retail giants to take the defensive1. For example Maitland explains how Charles Kernaghan, who runs the National Labor Coalition (NLC), brought attention to the fact that Kathie Lee Giffords clothing line was being made by 13- and 14- year- olds working 20- hour days in factories in Honduras, and also arranged for teenage workers from Central American sweatshops to testify before Congressional committees about abusive labor practices. Kernaghan, went on to deliver a masterstroke, when one of the workers held up a Liz Claiborne cotton sweater identical to ones she had sewn since she was a 13- year- old working 12 hours days, during one of these hearings.2 Maitland notes that this incident had an extremely damaging effect on the companies that held their public images to be sacred. The media had a field day withimage of young exploited girl displaying the Claiborne logo and making accusations of oppressive conditions at the factory.3 Consequently, the companies for whom their image was sacrosanct and meant everything to them, petitioned for peace to protect their image, which they deem to be their most valuable asset.4 The companies adopted certain codes of conduct on human and labor rights in their international operations to ensure appropriate levels of pay and safety standards in sweatshops operated by them.

A Research Proposal on the Role of the Chief Executive Officer Essay Example for Free

A Research Proposal on the Role of the Chief Executive Officer Essay Questions One of the major problems in business is the notion of whether companies should be concerned with other issues than profitability. Adam Smith in 1863 claimed that the process of achieving the overall good for the society is something that will happen inevitably happen because of his idea of the invisible hand of the market. However, more contemporary ideas assert otherwise as they believed that there are a number of conditions that would hinder the invisible hand to work effectively (Mohr and Webb, 2002). The concept of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is deeply rooted on the commitment of organizations to continue their business in an ethical manner. It is in this respect that organizations are said to necessarily contribute to the overall economic development of ones country while at the same time improving the quality of life of not only its employees and its families but also the society where it belonged (Watts and Holme, 1999). One of the central concerns with regard to the necessity of the implementation of CSR by a particular organization is the impact of a particular company’s decisions and actions within the society together with their responsibility in the aforementioned. As such this means that when aligning certain organizational goals or projects, it would be better if organizations will evaluate first their actions and make sure that they are in accordance to the welfare of the greater good (Parsons, 1954). As such, the impact of an organizations decision within the society is very vital in CSR. It should be emphasized as well that an organizations duty should span more than the economic and legal aspects but also assume the good of the majority. Archie Carroll said that an organizations social responsibility is something that includes the interplay of four important factors. These are economic performance, adherence with the law, ethical responsibility, good corporate citizenship, and improving the societys quality of life (Carrol and Buchholtz, 2003). However despite companies claim for CSR implementation, a significant number of evidence tells that every year, there are numerous companies that are charged for violating environmental laws (Kassinis and Panayiotou, 2006, p. 68). Problems The success of a company’s CSR and the its effect on the company’s image has been viewed by a number of studies to be directly correlated on the role of the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) (PR News, 2007). It has been said by Kassinis and Panayiotou (2006) that the role of the CEO is very vital since they are the ones who are primarily responsible for the boards decision-management functions and the even the extent of corporate wrongdoing. The interpretation of the CEO in terms of various environmental issues that could have affect their firms and its choice of environmental strategies have also a significant implication on the overall image and performance of a particular company. Studies such as those conducted by PR News Wire in 2008 claimed that to belong to Fortune’s Worlds Most Admired Companies, the CEOs role together with his or her capacity to create a strategy or hire specific experts who can effectively handle CSR concerns, such as hiring a competitive Chief Communications Officer (CCO,) is very vital. Companies which belong to Fortunes annual awards are often evaluated based on their reputation. According to PR News in 2007, it is often the case that CEOs are the ones who are held accountable in terms of the failure to protect the company image in whenever a crisis arises. The study of PR News revealed that in out of 950 global business executives in 11 countries, 68% of the results attributed unethical behavior to the CEO, and 60% cited environmental violations and product recalls to the CEO as well. The influence of the perceptions of various stakeholders, regulators, communities and employees has been viewed by Kassinis and Panayiotou (2006) as critical to the welfare of the firm as they are centrally involved in enforcing the laws and other policies that companies must adhere to. Figure 1: Relationship Between CSR and Stakeholders Source: Tokoro (2007) The figure above shows the direct relationship of stakeholders to CSR in terms of the restrictions that they impose, the resource deals that they pass and the overall value creation of the organization. Gap in Research Even if the claim on the role of CEOs in terms of dealing with issues of CSR and company reputation, other studies suggests that CSR strategies and policies are instead delegated to the shareholders (Kassinis and Panayiotou, 2006, p. 67). It is often the case that the demands of the shareholders are oftentimes in conflict with the interest of customers, suppliers, governments, unions, competitors, local communities, and the general public (Sims, 2003, p. 40). The table below shows an overview of perceptions of Table 1: Stakeholders View of Corporate Responsibility Stakeholders Nature of Stakeholder Claim Shareholders Participation in distribution of profits, additional stock offerings, assets on liquidation; vote of stock; inspection of company books; transfer of stock; election of board of directors; and such additional rights as have been established in the contract with the corporation. Employees Economic, social, and psychological satisfaction in the place of employment. Freedom from arbitrary and capricious behavior on the part of company officials. Share in fringe benefits, freedom to join union and participate in collective bargaining, individual freedom in offering up their services through an employment contract. Adequate working conditions. Customers Service provided with the product; technical data to use the product; suitable warranties; spare parts to support the product during use; RD leading to product improvement; facilitation of credit. Creditors Legal proportion of interest payments due and return of principal from the investment. Security of pledged assets; relative priority in event of liquidation. Management and owner prerogatives if certain conditions exist with the company (such as default of interest payments). Suppliers Continuing source of business; timely consummation of trade credit obligations; professional relationship in contracting for, purchasing, and receiving goods and services. Unions Recognition as the negotiating agent for employees. Opportunity to perpetuate the union as a participant in the business organization. Competitors Observation of the norms of competitive conduct established by society and the industry. Business statesmanship on the part of peers. Governments Taxes (income, property, and so on); adherence to the letter and intent of public policy dealing with the requirements of fair and free competition; discharge of legal obligations of businesspeople (and business organizations); adherence to antitrust laws. Local communities Place of productive and healthful environment in the community. Participation of company officials in community affairs, provision of regular employment, fair play, reasonable portion of purchases made in the local community, interest in and support of local government, support of cultural and charitable projects. The general public Participation in and contribution to society as a whole; creative communications between governmental and business units designed for reciprocal understanding; assumption of fair proportion of the burden of government and society. Fair price for products and advancement of the state-of-the-art technology that the product line involves. Source: Sims, 2003, p. 41 For instance, consumers expect that the company should be able to carry out their business in a responsible manner; on the other hand, stakeholders expect that their investments would be returned. In other instances, customers are looking forward a return on what they paid for, while suppliers look for dependable buyers. The government wanted companies to follow legislations, while unions seek benefits for their members. The competitors, expected companies to do their business in a fair manner and local communities wanted the aforementioned to be responsible citizens. Finally, the general public expects organizations to improve the over all quality of human life, while shareholders might view this proposition as utopian (Sims, 2003). The figure below shows the dynamics of stakeholder interactions. Figure 2: Value Creation Through Dialogue with Stakeholders Source: Tokoro (2007) As such, it is in this respect that it could be said that CEOs and a particular company’s responsiveness to the demands of CSR and eventually creating a strong image is something could not be the sole determining factor for a successful CSR. Instead, the question of whether CEOs are only implementing the demands of the company’s stakeholders, or the CEOs only attending to consumer, suppliers, government, community and general public demand should also be taken into close consideration. Deficiency As most researches often attribute the success or failure of a CSR strategy to the CEO, the role and influence of other stakeholders in the organization are not often viewed as significant variables worthy of consideration. Only most recent researches are significantly attributing stakeholder roles in terms of its relationship to CSR. Albeit, based from the researcher’s survey of various secondary data, there are hardly any robust literatures stating the influence of stakeholders to the CEO and eventually the latter’s decision on how to implement its CSR program. Purpose The study is vital in order to not only contribute to the existing studies on the role of CEOs and a successful CSR program; but also to further strengthen the claim on the relationship of CSR and a favorable company image. More importantly, subtle factors that might have influenced CEO decisions, strategies and policies such as those coming from company stakeholders will be taken into close consideration and in addition, will be taken as important variables for the research. Although studies on the direct relationship of company stakeholders and CSR and presented by various researches, the role of the stakeholders in terms of influencing the CEO in its CSR decisions are seldom taken into consideration. As such it is with this respect that the research seeks to significantly contribute to the scholarly studies devoted in order to analyze such dynamics. Research Questions Main Question For the purpose of this research, the study wanted to know: What is the role of the CEO in terms of promoting the Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) programs of their organization and its relation to building a favorable image? Subquestions Specifically, the research wanted to know: 1. What is the relationship between a successful CSR program and the role of the CEO? 2. What is the relationship between a successful CSR program and a favorable brand image? 3. What is the role of the following in terms of influencing the CSR strategies of a particular organization: a. Shareholders b. Consumers c. Suppliers d. General Public 4. How did company shareholders, consumers, suppliers and the general public influence the strategy of the CEO in terms of implementing its CSR program? Methodology Research Tradition For the purpose of this research, the study will be employing both quantitative and qualitative research methods. Â  It is often the case that quantitative research employs the method that is based on testing of theories. It uses measurement of numbers, and statistical analysis to perform its studies. The idea behind quantitative research is often to ascertain that a generalized theory or the prediction of a theory will be confirmed by the use of numbers. The aforementioned normally starts with a research question or a hypothesis in addition to other theories that are needed to be tested. The approach of quantitative research includes the use of formal and generally recognized instruments (O’brien 1998). In addition to this, the quantitative tradition of research focuses on conducting experiments with an underlying expectation that a consensus would be arrived at. This method usually aims to arrive at a predictable generalization, and a causal explanation. Quantitative research can create a controlled environment in order to attain inductive analysis. The goal of this research tradition is to establish a consensus by reducing data to numerical indications, hence finally identifying if certain generalizations are valid or invalid (O’brien 1998). In this research method it is very relevant that the researcher must maintain its independence from the research object; and consequently, the research outcome is expected to be not value affected (O’brien 1998). The quantitative methodology also tests cause and effect by using deductive logic. When done correctly a quantitative research should be able to predict, and explain the theory in question (O’brien 1998). On the other hand, the Qualitative research focuses primarily on words rather than numbers. The main research instrument for such a type of tradition is the process of involvement of the researcher to the people whom he or she studies (Dyamon and Holloway, 2002). In relation with this, the viewpoints of the participants are also taken into much account. The Qualitative research tradition focuses on small-scale studies wherein deep explorations are being conducted in order to provide a detailed and holistic description and explanation of a specific subject matter. Rather than focusing on a single or two isolated variables, the aforementioned takes into account interconnected activities, experiences, beliefs and values of people, hence adopting a multiple dimension for study. This tradition of research is also flexible in a sense that certain factors are being explored due to not necessarily adhering to a strict method of data gathering. It also captures certain processes wherein changes in sequence of events, behaviors and transformation among cultures are closely taken into consideration. More importantly, a qualitative research is normally carried out in venues that are within a respondents natural environment such as schools, offices, homes, etc. This allowed participants to be more at ease and be able to express their ideas freely (Dyamon and Holloway, 2002). Data Gathering The data gathering will consist of secondary and primary data collections. Ghauri, Gronhaug and Kristianslund (1995) emphasized the importance of secondary data collection most especially through desk or library research. Secondary data collection normally includes data that were collected by another researcher or writer. It is often the case that they are lifted from books of recent publications, journals, magazines, newspapers and even trusted websites such as those of private organizations, non-government organizations, government organizations and the likes. The review of related literature will provide a scholarly perspective on the subject matter and at the same time made the researcher aware of both previous and contemporary research on the subject matter. For the purpose of this research, the author will be using scholarly journals and articles, books and magazines specifically focusing on the oil and gas industry; and freight industry in the Middle East, most specifically Turkey. The scholarly literatures will be primarily taken from EBSCO Host, JSTOR and Questia Media America, an exclusive on-line library. For the primary data collection for quantitative data, the study will be conducting surveys among consumers, suppliers and general public using questions of ordinal measurement using Likert scales for General Electric. Surveys include the process of using questionnaires with the aim of making an estimation of the perceptions of the subjects of the study. Surveys are considered advantageous because it could be used to study a huge number of subjects (Ghauri, Gronhaug and Kristianslund, 1995). On the other hand, interviews will be conducted among selected GE shareholders regarding their perception on the role of the CEO and implementation of the company’s CSR. Data Gathering Methods and their Justification For the purpose of this research, the researcher will be using self-administered questionnaires. Self-administered questionnaires often times offer a higher response rate and are also relatively cost effective (Ghauri, Gronhaug and Kristianslund, 1995). Foremost of its advantage rests on the notion that the process of data gathering could be more personal and also the researcher will be able to clarify certain notions that could be unclear in the survey form. However, one distinct disadvantage of such a method is the difficulty of administrating the survey to multiple respondents all at the same time. In addition, the self-administered data gathering could be very time consuming as well. The research will also be conducting an interview in order to collect the qualitative data necessary for the research. Interviews are very relevant most specially in getting data that could be a rich source of information that surveys could not provide (Ghauri, Gronhaug and Kristianslund, 1995). For the purpose of interviewing, various stakeholders from General Electric Corporation will be asked with regard to their perceptions of how GE should be employing its CSR, and their perceptions on the role of the CEO in terms of effectively implementing its CSR and the company’s image. Questionnaire Design The questionnaire design for the survey will be made in a detailed, precise and logical construction of close-ended questions. In addition with this, the questions will also be made in accordance with the research question and the objectives of the research (Oppenheim, 1992). The questions will be formulated using an ordinal scale and will be close-ended in nature. Such is relevant so that respondents would only have to encircle or check the designated number of their corresponding responses (Oppenhein, 1992). In addition to this, close-ended questions are very easy to answer and could enable the researcher create a summated value that could be use for data analysis. The questions that will be used in the interview will be tailored in such a manner that would directly answer concerns that are in accordance of the objectives of the study. The questions for the shareholders will be specifically created in a manner where there will be an open flow of information and exchange of ideas. The details on how consumers, suppliers and general public wanted the company to act together with its policies and possible ethical practices will be included in the survey. In this respect, questions will be formulated with a closed-ended nature. Sampling For the purpose of this research, the researcher will conduct a survey based on simple random sampling (SRS) which will include randomly choosing participants coming from consumers, suppliers and general public. On the other hand, the research will be employing purposive sampling methods in terms of choosing the stakeholders of General Electric who can participate in the study. Target Population According to Ghauri, Gronhaug and Kristianslund (1995) research should cater to a target population that has all the necessary information for the research such as sampling elements, sampling units, and area of coverage. For the purpose of this study, the author is trying to identify the role of consumers, suppliers and the general public. As such, the study will be asking 120 respondents to participate in the survey of which will primarily come from consumers and suppliers of General Electric as well as the general public who are concerned with General Electric and its operations. Reliability and Validity The studys reliability and validity go hand in hand as patterns of measurement are both dependent on the aforementioned (Zikmund, 1994). Reliability primarily focuses on the internal consistency and the repeatability of the variables within the research. On the other hand, validity centers on the correctness and appropriateness of the question that one intends to measure (Ghauri, Gronhaug and Kristianslund, 1995). According to Chisnall (1997), validity is generally considered and established through the relationship of the instrument to the content, criterion or construct that it attempts to measure. A lack of validity can lead to incorrect conclusion. In order to make sure that the instrument that will be used are reliable and valid, the researcher will assure that such is patterned based on the objectives of the study, the secondary data and also on the feedback that was given based on the pilot study that will be conducted. Analysis of Data Data information gathered from the surveys and interviews and secondary data from the other studies found will be used for the analysis that would answer the research question. Charts and comparisons of data will be used as analysis tools. Statistics used will be based on the survey results from the questionnaire made by the researcher. Statistical Products and Service Solutions (SPSS) will also be used to determine the stand of the respondents regarding a particular question formulated in the survey (Griego and Morgan, 2000, p. 2). References Carroll A. and Buchholtz A.K., (2003). Business and Society: Ethics and Stakeholder Management, 5th ed. Mason, O.: South-Western. Chisnall P. M., (1997). Marketing Research, 5ed., Berkshire: McGraw-Hill. Woodruff H. (1995), Services Marketing. London: Pitman Publishing Daymon C. and Holloway I., (2002). Qualitative Research Methods in Public Relations and Marketing Communications. London: Routledge. Ghauri, P., Gronhaug, K. and Kristianslund, I., (1995). Research Methods In Business Studies: A Practical Guide. Great Britain: Prentice Hall. Griego O. and Morgan G. (2000). SPSS for Windows: An Introduction to Use and Interpretation in Research. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Kassinis G. and Panayiotou, A. (2006). Perceptions Matter: CEO Perceptions and Firm Environmental Performance. The Journal of Corporate Citizenship, (23), p. 67. Mohr L.A. and Webb D. J., (2001). Do Consumers Expect Companies to Be Socially Responsible? the Impact of Corporate Social Responsibility on Buying Behavior. Journal of Consumer Affairs. (35) (1). OBrien, Gerard J. (1998) The Role of Implementation in Connectionist Explanation, Psychology, (9) 6, p.3. Oppenhein, A. N, (1992). Questionnaire Design Interviewing and Attitude Measurement. London: Pinter. Parsons, Talcott (1954). Essays in Sociological Theory. Revised Edition. New York: Free Press. PR News Wire (2008). Corporate Communications Officers in Worlds Most Admired Companies Have Longer Tenures, Fewer Rivals and Report to the CEO; New Study Underscores Critical and Evolving Role of the CCO -; Forecasts CCOs Shifting Focus To Reputation, Social Responsibility and Social Media in 2008. Accessed in the PR News Wire Database. PR News (2007). Quick Study: CEOs Bear Responsibility; Customer Relations Is Dysfunctional; Social Media Invades. PR News. Potomac, (63), 9, p. 1 PR News. (2006). Changing Face Of CSR: New Trends Redefine Doing Well By Doing Good. PR News. Potomac, (62) 42, p. 1 Sims, R., (2003). Ethics and Corporate Social Responsibility: Why Giants Fall. Westport, CT: Praeger. Tokoro N (2007). Stakeholders and Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR): A New Perspective on the Structure of Relationships. Asian Business Management, 6 (2), pp.143-162. Watts P. and Holme R. (1999). Meeting Changing Expectations: Corporate Social Responsibility Available: http://www.wbcsd.org/publications/csrpub.htm [accessed 5June 2008]. Zikmund, G. W. (1994). Exploring Marketing Research. Dryden.

Metrics and Models in Software Testing

Metrics and Models in Software Testing How do we measure the progress of testing? When do we release the software? Why do we devote more time and resources for testing a particular module? What is the reliability of software at the time of release? Who is responsible for the selection of a poor test suite? How many faults do we expect during testing? How much time and resources are required to test a software? How do we know the effectiveness of test suite? We may keep on framing such questions without much effort? However, finding answers to such questions are not easy and may require significant amount of effort. Software testing metrics may help us to measure and quantify many things which may find some answers to such important questions. 10.1 Software Metrics â€Å"What cannot be measured, cannot be controlled† is a reality in this world. If we want to control something we should first be able to measure it. Therefore, everything should be measurable. If a thing is not measurable, we should make an effort to make it measurable. The area of measurement is very important in every field and we have mature and establish metrics to quantify various things. However, in software engineering this â€Å"area of measurement† is still in its developing stage and may require significant effort to make it mature, scientific and effective. 10.1.1 Measure, Measurement and Metrics These terms are often used interchangeably. However, we should understand the difference amongst these terms. Pressman explained this clearly as [PRES05]: â€Å"A measure provides a quantitative indication of the extent, amount, dimension, capacity or size of some attributes of a product or process. Measurement is the act of determining a measure. The metric is a quantitative measure of the degree to which a product or process possesses a given attribute†. For example, a measure is the number of failures experienced during testing. Measurement is the way of recording such failures. A software metric may be average number of failures experienced per hour during testing. Fenton [FENT04] has defined measurement as: â€Å"It is the process by which numbers or symbols are assigned to attributes of entities in the real world in such a way as to describe them according to clearly defined rules†. The basic issue is that we want to measure every attribute of an entity. We should have established metrics to do so. However, we are in the process of developing metrics for many attributes of various entities used in software engineering. Software metrics can be defined as [GOOD93]: â€Å"The continuous application of measurement based techniques to the software development process and its products to supply meaningful and timely management information, together with the use of those techniques to improve that process and its products.† Many things are covered in this definition. Software metrics are related to measures which, in turn, involve numbers for quantification, these numbers are used to produce better product and improve its related process. We may like to measure quality attributes such as testability, complexity, reliability, maintainability, efficiency, portability, enhanceability, usability etc for a software. We may also like to measure size, effort, development time and resources for a software. 10.1.2 Applications Software metrics are applicable in all phases of software development life cycle. In software requirements and analysis phase, where output is the SRS document, we may have to estimate the cost, manpower requirement and development time for the software. The customer may like to know cost of the software and development time before signing the contract. As we all know, the SRS document acts as a contract between customer and developer. The readability and effectiveness of SRS document may help to increase the confidence level of the customer and may provide better foundations for designing the product. Some metrics are available for cost and size estimation like COCOMO, Putnam resource allocation model, function point estimation model etc. Some metrics are also available for the SRS document like number of mistakes found during verification, change request frequency, readability etc. In the design phase, we may like to measure stability of a design, coupling amongst modules, cohesion of a module etc. We may also like to measure the amount of data input to a software, processed by the software and also produced by the software. A count of the amount of data input to, processed in, and output from software is called a data structure metric. Many such metrics are available like number of variables, number of operators, number of operands, number of live variables, variable spans, module weakness etc. Some information flow metrics are also popular like FANIN, FAN OUT etc. Use cases may also be used to design metrics like counting actors, counting use cases, counting number of links etc. Some metrics may also be designed for various applications of websites like number of static web pages, number of dynamic web pages, number of internal page links, word count, number of static and dynamic content objects, time taken to search a web page and retrieve the desired information, similarity of web pages etc. Software metrics have number of applications during implementation phase and after the completion of such a phase. Halstead software size measures are applicable after coding like token count, program length, program volume, program level, difficulty, estimation of time and effort, language level etc. Some complexity measures are also popular like cyclomatic complexity, knot count, feature count etc. Software metrics have found good number of applications during testing. One area is the reliability estimation where popular models are Musas basic executio n time model and Logarithmic Poisson execution time model. Jelinski Moranda model [JELI72] is also used for the calculation of reliability. Source code coverage metrics are available that calculate the percentage of source code covered during testing. Test suite effectiveness may also be measured. Number of failures experienced per unit of time, number of paths, number of independent paths, number of du paths, percentage of statement coverage, percentage of branch condition covered are also useful software metrics. Maintenance phase may have many metrics like number of faults reported per year, number of requests for changes per year, percentage of source code modified per year, percentage of obsolete source code per year etc. We may find number of applications of software metrics in every phase of software development life cycle. They provide meaningful and timely information which may help us to take corrective actions as and when required. Effective implementation of metrics may improve the quality of software and may help us to deliver the software in time and within budget. 10.2 Categories of Metrics There are two broad categories of software metrics namely product metrics and process metrics. Product metrics describe the characteristics of the product such as size, complexity, design features, performance, efficiency, reliability, portability, etc. Process metrics describe the effectiveness and quality of the processes that produce the software product. Examples are effort required in the process, time to produce the product, effectiveness of defect removal during development, number of defects found during testing, maturity of the process [AGGA08]. 10.2.1 Product metrics for testing These metrics provide information about the testing status of a software product. The data for such metrics are also generated during testing and may help us to know the quality of the product. Some of the basic metrics are given as: (i) Number of failures experienced in a time interval (ii) Time interval between failures (iii) Cumulative failures experienced upto a specified time (iv) Time of failure (v) Estimated time for testing (vi) Actual testing time With these basic metrics, we may find some additional metrics as given below: (i) (ii) Average time interval between failures (iii) Maximum and minimum failures experienced in any time interval (iv) Average number of failures experienced in time intervals (v) Time remaining to complete the testing. We may design similar metrics to find the indications about the quality of the product. 10.2.2 Process metrics for testing These metrics are developed to monitor the progress of testing, status of design and development of test cases and outcome of test cases after execution. Some of the basic process metrics are given below: (i) Number of test cases designed (ii) Number of test cases executed (iii) Number of test cases passed (iv) Number of test cases failed (v) Test case execution time (vi) Total execution time (vii) Time spent for the development of a test case (viii) Total time spent for the development of all test cases On the basis of above direct measures, we may design following additional metrics which may convert the base metric data into more useful information. (i) % of test cases executed (ii) % of test cases passed (iii) % of test cases failed (iv) Total actual execution time / total estimated execution time (v) Average execution time of a test case These metrics, although simple, may help us to know the progress of testing and may provide meaningful information to the testers and project manager. An effective test plan may force us to capture data and convert it into useful metrics for process and product both. This document also guides the organization for future projects and may also suggest changes in the existing processes in order to produce a good quality maintainable software product. 10.3 Object Oriented Metrics used in Testing Object oriented metrics capture many attributes of a software and some of them are relevant in testing. Measuring structural design attributes of a software system, such as coupling, cohesion or complexity, is a promising approach towards early quality assessments. There are several metrics available in the literature to capture the quality of design and source code. 10.3.1 Coupling Metrics Coupling relations increase complexity, reduce encapsulation, potential reuse, and limit understanding and maintainability. The coupling metrics requires information about attribute usage and method invocations of other classes. These metrics are given in table 10.1. Higher values of coupling metrics indicate that a class under test will require more number of stubs during testing. In addition, each interface will require to be tested thoroughly. Metric Definition Source Coupling between Objects. (CBO) CBO for a class is count of the number of other classes to which it is coupled. [CHID94] Data Abstraction Coupling (DAC) Data Abstraction is a technique of creating new data types suited for an application to be programmed. DAC = number of ADTs defined in a class. [LI93] Message Passing Coupling. (MPC) It counts the number of send statements defined in a class. Response for a Class (RFC) It is defined as set of methods that can be potentially executed in response to a message received by an object of that class. It is given by RFC=|RS|, where RS, the response set of the class, is given by [CHID94] Information flow-based coupling (ICP) The number of methods invoked in a class, weighted by the number of parameters of the methods invoked. [LEE95] Information flow-based inheritance coupling. (IHICP) Same as ICP, but only counts methods invocations of ancestors of classes. Information flow-based non-inheritance coupling (NIHICP) Same as ICP, but only counts methods invocations of classes not related through inheritance. Fan-in Count of modules (classes) that call a given class, plus the number of global data elements. [BINK98] Fan-out Count of modules (classes) called by a given module plus the number of global data elements altered by the module (class). [BINK98] Table 10.1: Coupling Metrics 10.3.3 Inheritance Metrics Inheritance metrics requires information about ancestors and descendants of a class. They also collect information about methods overridden, inherited and added (i.e. neither inherited nor overrided). These metrics are summarized in table 10.3. If a class has more number of children (or sub classes), more amount of testing may be required in testing the methods of that class. More is the depth of inheritance tree, more complex is the design as more number of methods and classes are involved. Thus, we may test all the inherited methods of a class and testing effort well increase accordingly. Metric Definition Sources Number of Children (NOC) The NOC is the number of immediate subclasses of a class in a hierarchy. [CHID94] Depth of Inheritance Tree (DIT) The depth of a class within the inheritance hierarchy is the maximum number of steps from the class node to the root of the tree and is measured by the number of ancestor classes. Number of Parents (NOP) The number of classes that a class directly inherits from (i.e. multiple inheritance). [LORE94] Number of Descendants (NOD) The number of subclasses (both direct and indirectly inherited) of a class. Number of Ancestors (NOA) The number of superclasses (both direct and indirectly inherited) of a class. [TEGA92] Number of Methods Overridden (NMO) When a method in a subclass has the same name and type signature as in its superclass, then the method in the superclass is said to be overridden by the method in the subclass. [LORE94] Number of Methods Inherited (NMI) The number of methods that a class inherits from its super (ancestor) class. Number of Methods Added (NMA) The number of new methods added in a class (neither inherited, nor overriding). Table 10.3: Inheritance Metrics 10.3.4 Size Metrics Size metrics indicate the length of a class in terms of lines of source code and methods used in the class. These metrics are given in table 10.4. If a class has more number of methods with greater complexity, then more number of test cases will be required to test that class. When a class with more number of methods with greater complexity is inherited, it will require more rigorous testing. Similarly, a class with more number of public methods will require thorough testing of public methods as they may be used by other classes. Metric Definition Sources Number of Attributes per Class (NA) It counts the total number of attributes defined in a class. Number of Methods per Class (NM) It counts number of methods defined in a class. Weighted Methods per Class (WMC) The WMC is a count of sum of complexities of all methods in a class. Consider a class K1, with methods M1,†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. Mn that are defined in the class. Let C1,†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.Cn be the complexity of the methods. [CHID94] Number of public methods (PM) It counts number of public methods defined in a class. Number of non-public methods (NPM) It counts number of private methods defined in a class. Lines Of Code (LOC) It counts the lines in the source code. Table 10.4: Size Metrics 10.4 What should we measure during testing? We should measure every thing (if possible) which we want to control and which may help us to find answers to the questions given in the beginning of this chapter. Test metrics may help us to measure the current performance of any project. The collected data may become historical data for future projects. This data is very important because in the absence of historical data, all estimates are just the guesses. Hence, it is essential to record the key information about the current projects. Test metrics may become an important indicator of the effectiveness and efficiency of a software testing process and may also identify risky areas that may need more testing. 10.4.1 Time We may measure many things during testing with respect to time and some of them are given as: 1) Time required to run a test case. 2) Total time required to run a test suite. 3) Time available for testing 4) Time interval between failures 5) Cumulative failures experienced upto a given time 6) Time of failure 7) Failures experienced in a time interval A test case requires some time for its execution. A measurement of this time may help to estimate the total time required to execute a test suite. This is the simplest metric and may estimate the testing effort. We may calculate the time available for testing at any point in time during testing, if we know the total allotted time for testing. Generally unit of time is seconds, minutes or hours, per test case. Total testing time may be defined in terms of hours. Time needed to execute a planned test suite may also be defined in terms of hours. When we test a software, we experience failures. These failures may be recorded in different ways like time of failure, time interval between failures, cumulative failures experienced upto given time and failures experienced in a time interval. Consider the table 10.5 and table 10.6 where time based failure specification and failure based failure specification are given: Sr. No. of failure occurrences Failure time measured in minutes Failure intervals in minutes 1 12 12 2 26 14 3 35 09 4 38 03 5 50 12 6 70 20 7 106 36 8 125 19 9 155 30 10 200 45 Table 10.5: Time based failure specification Time in minutes Cumulative failures Failures in interval of 20 minutes 20 01 01 40 04 03 60 05 01 80 06 01 100 06 00 120 07 01 140 08 01 160 09 01 180 09 00 200 10 01 Table 10.6: Failure based failure specification These two tables give us the idea about failure pattern and may help us to define the following: 1) Time taken to experience ‘n failures 2) Number of failures in a particular time interval 3) Total number of failures experienced after a specified time 4) Maximum / minimum number of failures experienced in any regular time interval. 10.4.2 Quality of source code We may know the quality of the delivered source code after reasonable time of release using the following formula: Where WDB: Number of weighted defects found before release WDA: Number of weighted defects found after release The weight for each defect is defined on the basis of defect severity and removal cost. A severity is assigned to each defect by testers based on how important or serious is the defect. A lower value of this metric indicates the less number of error detection or less serious error detection. We may also calculate the number of defects per execution test case. This may also be used as an indicator of source code quality as the source code progressed through the series of test activities [STEP03]. 10.4.3 Source Code Coverage We may like to execute every statement of a program at least once before its release to the customer. Hence, percentage of source code coverage may be calculated as: The higher value of this metric given confidence about the effectiveness of a test suite. We should write additional test cases to cover the uncovered portions of the source code. 10.4.4 Test Case Defect Density This metric may help us to know the efficiency and effectiveness of our test cases. Where Failed test case: A test case that when executed, produced an undesired output. Passed test case: A test case that when executed, produced a desired output Higher value of this metric indicates that the test cases are effective and efficient because they are able to detect more number of defects. 10.4.5 Review Efficiency Review efficiency is a metric that gives insight on the quality of review process carried out during verification. Higher the value of this metric, better is the review efficiency. 10.5 Software Quality Attributes Prediction Models Software quality is dependent on many attributes like reliability, maintainability, fault proneness, testability, complexity, etc. Number of models are available for the prediction of one or more such attributes of quality. These models are especially beneficial for large-scale systems, where testing experts need to focus their attention and resources to problem areas in the system under development. 10.5.1 Reliability Models Many reliability models for software are available where emphasis is on failures rather than faults. We experience failures during execution of any program. A fault in the program may lead to failure(s) depending upon the input(s) given to a program with the purpose of executing it. Hence, time of failure and time between failures may help us to find reliability of software. As we all know, software reliability is the probability of failure free operation of software in a given time under specified conditions. Generally, we consider the calendar time. We may like to know the probability that a given software will not fail in one month time or one week time and so on. However, most of the available models are based on execution time. The execution time is the time for which the computer actually executes the program. Reliability models based on execution time normally give better results than those based on calendar time. In many cases, we have a mapping table that converts execution time to calendar time for the purpose of reliability studies. In order to differentiate both the timings, execution time is represented byand calendar time by t. Most of the reliability models are applicable at system testing level. Whenever software fails, we note the time of failure and also try to locate and correct the fault that caused the failure. During system testing, software may not fail at regular intervals and may also not follow a particular pattern. The variation in time between successive failures may be described in terms of following functions: ÃŽ ¼ () : average number of failures upto time ÃŽ » () : average number of failures per unit time at time and is known as failure intensity function. It is expected that the reliability of a program increases due to fault detection and correction over time and hence the failure intensity decreases accordingly. (i) Basic Execution Time Model This is one of the popular model of software reliability assessment and was developed by J.D. MUSA [MUSA79] in 1979. As the name indicates, it is based on execution time (). The basic assumption is that failures may occur according to a non-homogeneous poisson process (NHPP) during testing. Many examples may be given for real world events where poisson processes are used. Few examples are given as: * Number of users using a website in a given period of time. * Number of persons requesting for railway tickets in a given period of time * Number of e-mails expected in a given period of time. The failures during testing represents a non-homogeneous process, and failure intensity decreases as a function of time. J.D. Musa assumed that the decrease in failure intensity as a function of the number of failures observed, is constant and is given as: Where : Initial failure intensity at the start of testing. : Total number of failures experienced upto infinite time : Number of failures experienced upto a given point in time. Musa [MUSA79] has also given the relationship between failure intensity (ÃŽ ») and the mean failures experienced (ÃŽ ¼) and is given in 10.1. If we take the first derivative of equation given above, we get the slope of the failure intensity as given below The negative sign shows that there is a negative slope indicating a decrementing trend in failure intensity. This model also assumes a uniform failure pattern meaning thereby equal probability of failures due to various faults. The relationship between execution time () and mean failures experienced (ÃŽ ¼) is given in 10.2 The derivation of the relationship of 10.2 may be obtained as: The failure intensity as a function of time is given in 10.3. This relationship is useful for calculating present failure intensity at any given value of execution time. We may find this relationship Two additional equations are given to calculate additional failures required to be experienced to reach a failure intensity objective (ÃŽ »F) and additional time required to reach the objective. These equations are given as: Where à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  ÃŽ ¼: Expected number of additional failures to be experienced to reach failure intensity objective. : Additional time required to reach the failure intensity objective. : Present failure intensity : Failure intensity objective. and are very interesting metrics to know the additional time and additional failures required to achieve a failure intensity objective. Example 10.1: A program will experience 100 failures in infinite time. It has now experienced 50 failures. The initial failure intensity is 10 failures/hour. Use the basic execution time model for the following: (i) Find the present failure intensity. (ii) Calculate the decrement of failure intensity per failure. (iii) Determine the failure experienced and failure intensity after 10 and 50 hours of execution. (iv) Find the additional failures and additional execution time needed to reach the failure intensity objective of 2 failures/hour. Solution: (a) Present failure intensity can be calculated using the following equation: (b) Decrement of failure intensity per failure can be calculated using the following: (c) Failures experienced and failure intensity after 10 and 50 hours of execution can be calculated as: (i) After 10 hours of execution (ii) After 50 hours of execution (d) and with failure intensity objective of 2 failures/hour (ii) Logarithmic Poisson Execution time model With a slight modification in the failure intensity function, Musa presented logarithmic poisson execution time model. The failure intensity function is given as: Where ÃŽ ¸: Failure intensity decay parameter which represents the relative change of failure intensity per failure experienced. The slope of failure intensity is given as: The expected number of failures for this model is always infinite at infinite time. The relation for mean failures experienced is given as: The expression for failure intensity with respect to time is given as: The relationship for additional number of failures and additional execution time are given as: When execution time is more, the logarithmic poisson model may give large values of failure intensity than the basic model. Example 10.2: The initial failure intensity of a program is 10 failures/hour. The program has experienced 50 failures. The failure intensity decay parameter is 0.01/failure. Use the logarithmic poisson execution time model for the following: (a) Find present failure intensity. (b) Calculate the decrement of failure intensity per failure. (c) Determine the failure experienced and failure intensity after 10 and 50 hours of execution. (d) Find the additional failures and additional and failure execution time needed to reach the failure intensity objective of 2 failures/hour. Solution: (a) Present failure intensity can be calculated as: = 50 failures = 50 failures = 0.01/falures Hence = 6.06 failures/hour (b) Decrement of failure intensity per failure can be calculated as: (c) Failure experienced and failure intensity after 10 and 50 hours of execution can be calculated as: (i) After 10 hours of execution (ii) After 50 hours of execution (d) and with failure intensity objective of 2 failures/hour (iii) The Jelinski Moranda Model The Jelinski Moranda model [JELI72] is the earliest and simples software reliability model. It proposed a failure intensity function in the form of Where = Constant of proportionality N = total number of errors present i = number of errors found by time interval ti. This model assumes that all failures have the same failure rate. It means that failure rate is a step function and there will be an improvement in reliability after fixing an error. Hence, every failure contributes equally to the overall reliability. Here, failure intensity is directly proportional to the number of errors remaining in a software. Once we know the value of failure intensity function using any reliability model, we may calculate reliability using the equation given below: Where ÃŽ » is the failure intensity and t is the operating time. Lower the failure intensity and higher is the reliability and vice versa. Example 10.3: A program may experience 200 failures in infinite time of testing. It has experienced 100 failures. Use Jelinski-Moranda model to calculate failure intensity after the experience of 150 failures? Solution: Total expected number of failures (N) = 200 Failures experienced (i) =100 Constant of proportionality () = 0.02 We know = 2.02 failures/hour After 150 failures = 0.02 (200-150+1) =1.02 failures/hour Failure intensity will decrease with every additional failure experience. 10.5.2 An example of fault prediction model in practice It is clear that software metrics can be used to capture the quality of object oriented design and code. These metrics provide ways to evaluate the quality of software and their use in earlier phases of software development can help organizations in assessing a large software development quickly, at a low cost. To achieve help for planning and executing testing by focusing resources on the fault prone parts of the design and code, the model used to predict faulty classes should be used. The fault prediction model can also be used to identify classes that are prone to have severe faults. One can use this model with respect to high severity of faults to focus the testing on those parts of the system that are likely to cause serious failures. In this section, we describe models used to find relationship between object oriented metrics and fault proneness, and how such models can be of great help in planning and executing testing activities [MALH09, SING10]. In order to perform the analysis we used public domain KC1 NASA data set [NASA04] The data set is available on www.mdp.ivv.nasa.gov. The 145